To end suffering and to reach Nirvana is the main goal of Buddhist people. When learning about Buddhism, the information is usually cornered to India itself, but the reading had a clear understanding overall. Buddhism is inevitable unfolding of a distinct and self identical entity and more a dynamic process of borrowing, conflict, and interaction between and within traditions. The Buddha has preached over forty years to many different audiences and there was a concern that those teachings might not be remembered in the future.

The two major branches of Buddhism are recognized as the Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada, the oldest surviving, has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, whilst Mahayana, which is found throughout East Asia. A third branch later on came to be known as Vajrayani, which is often classified as the modernization of Buddhism.

Like other religion they too wanted to receive eternal freedom by reaching The Nirvana through the eight steps of Enlightenment, so they can get rid of their narrow minds and be free from all sins. Thus, the teaching of Buddha is of a single flavour but benefits begins in a variety of ways according to their capacity. The Buddha knows the abilities and dispositions of his disciples and causes them to hear his dharma in a way most suitable to them.

Iranian traditions are based upon the investigation of the pre- literary history of the Iranians using comparative philology as a method of determination. Since the primary language is yet identified, Frye deduces that the best means of discovering its origin would be to start from the Indo-European language, as this approach will give “the most adequate explanation of the divergences found in all of the language of the family” ( pg 17). The central idea is basically to acknowledge the unity of language supposedly brought a unity of social and religious beliefs.

The study of Indo- European religions had developed partly as a result of Dumezil’s theories which Frye reveals to be a mixture of belief and scepticism among today’s scholars. The next revelation lead him tot the Aryans as he was able to postulate an Indo-Iranian unity from related vocabulary, grammar, religious and social concepts from a common origin. Frye managed to show parallel concepts between the Iranians and the Indians without any discernible chronology as various stories of different dates were composed by tribal singers into one unified epic. These concepts of Indo-European existence proved to be very controversial as it was all relative to other distant classifications and divergences.

Zoroastrianism has a long oral tradition. Its prophet Zarathustra lived before the Iranians knew how to read or write. The Avesta, their collection of Holy texts, was set down in a particular invented alphabet around the fourth and fifth centuries. There was no real historical data or scriptures on Zoroaster’s arrival and most about him is known from the Gathas which are the attributions of the prophet himself.

Zoroastrians believed that the world was created in 7 stages. The major deities are organized into a Trinity, the three great ethical beings, similar to the Christian religion - Ahura Mazda or "Wisdom", Ahura Mithra or "Covenant", and Ahura Varuna or "Oath". Zoroastrians has a bit similarity with Christianity and Islam in my point of view, as it has the same understanding of one God and the belief of eternal life after death. Much of the texts speak about the struggles one has to make to remain good and pure. Even though some people might think Zoroastrianism as monotheistic way but many scholars today points out its lack of information.

Religion is highly an infamous word to describe as it has different meanings to it. Religion can be described in many ways. It can be said to be the belief in something sacred or a moral code believed to have a supernatural basis .Religion can be broken up to three main factors which includes psychological, sociological and historical factors, which helps to understand and identify the concepts of religion in a broader perspective. Definitions of religion tend to suffer from one of two problems: they are either too narrow and exclude many belief systems which most agree are religious, or they are too vague and ambiguous, suggesting that just about any and everything is a religion.  An example of a narrow definition is seen when religion is described as a belief in God and a vague example would be is to consider religion as a worldview.

Religion has always been with us from the early ages till present day. It has taken the central place in the lives of many people across the globe. It is powerful and it shows no sign of disappearing. It incites commitment, expression, action, and intense debate. Furthermore, the essence of religion is really deep and overwhelming, which the practioners consider to be the divine or the absolute. Scholars usually set out to study the historical roots of the background of the people. According to scholars religions are complex enterprises that mix moral, metaphysical and historical affirmations. Most scholars start from the assumption that the beliefs and behaviours they examine are products of human thought, intention and emotion. Religious activity needs instead to be approached through humanistic categories. It is best understood when scholars apply to it the same rules of analysis, evidence and logic used in philosophy, history and literature.

I belief that the exact definition of religion various from one person to another due to the fact that every person is unique in their own way, which basically means is that they have different beliefs and values, which helps in forming the true terminology of religion.

Chinese Stories describes the Sogdians as born to their trade. Their language Aramaic was mostly used all around the silk route. They were partly responsible for the widespread of religions, such as, Manicheism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism eastwards along the silk route. Their trading activities were acknowledged through the “Ancient Letters” found by Stein near the beacon at the end of the Great Wall. Many Archaeologists said that the sixth century, was when Sogadian culture at its highest peak, evidence received through the vast artistic objects, such as, paintings, sculptures, glasswork and many more.

They were not just considered merchants but art enthusiast. Their diffusion of art was evident as it influenced the art of other cultures. It was seen all around central Asia. Another thing that caught my eye was the burification process, which was the same as the Egyptians.

Brief idea of the two main religions at that time

Zoroastrianism is a blend of Buddhism and Hinduism. It’s dualistic by nature and accepts Ahura Mazda as the sole God to worship and has theme of light versus dark. This religion has spread all the way to India and is still practiced in many countries. On the other hand, Manichaeism is a mix of Christianity and Buddhism. Manichaeism views the world as the struggle of good versus evil. The success of Sogadian culture through its vast trading of goods is well known all around. Its impressive architectural ideas, sculptures and paintings were found in many influential places. Their cultural eloquent and innovative minds lead to many vast advances, which are used till today.

Chapter 4 was all about this nomadic tribes called the Xiongnu, which meant “fierce slaves”. These people had no real place and would migrate across the vast land in search of food, land and shelter. The Chinese people were not fond of them due to the fact, that they were given reasonable amounts of silk and ornaments annually, which demonstrates that Chinese were in fact over powered by them.

While reading, something that caught my attention was that Chinese people were very superstitious and aggressive at the same time. To acquire the Heavenly Horses, they had to go to war for over four years, which to me seems really pathetic. This shows that the emperor was stubborn and even though they can’t breed them properly due to the calcium deficiency in all organic matter including water, he gets what he wants

The Hou Hanshu translations are very ethnographic because it has more information about dates, names of places, and events, rather than giving any understanding or significance of events. It can also be considered a historical text as it was written really long ago, even though the author was not that good at entrenching variable facts. All in all, I am dazzled by seeing the vast differences in culture and what differences in time can lead.